Les Arômes

Spices are aromatic or pungent vegetable substances, excepting leaves, used to flavor food.
- Single spices
  - Black pepper (poivre noir) is probably the most common spice used in French cooking. Black pepper is the almost ripe, dried fruit of the pepper plant. The still-green fruit is dipped in boiling water to disinfect the surface. The process starts the fruit to ferment, which in turn causes the skin to turn black. The fully dried fruits are sold in France as whole peppercorns (poivre en grains), coarsely ground (poivre concassé), and finely ground (poivre en poudre).
  - White pepper (poivre blanc) is the same fruit as black pepper except the outer hull has been removed before drying. White pepper has the same pungency as black pepper, but the flavor is altered because of the missing flavor components of the hull.
  - Pink pepper (poivre rose) is named for its shape. The flavor is mild and sweet, not peppery. Pink peppercorns are often used for decorating rather than for flavoring.
  - Paprika (piment) is the dried, ground flesh of certain (I don’t know which) red peppers. French cooking generally uses sweet paprika (piment doux). Occasional recipes will call for a slightly less generic version such as Hungarian paprika (paprika de Hongrie) or Spanish paprika (piment d’Espagne).
  - Cayenne (poivre de Cayenne) is the dried and finely ground flesh of hot chili peppers. The actual hotness will vary from brand to brand and will lessen as the spice ages.
  - Piment d’Espelette is the dried, ground flesh of a slender, mildly hot chili pepper from the village of Espelette in the Basque region of southwestern France.
  - Nutmeg (noix de muscade) is the stone of an apricot-like fruit of the same name. Most of the nutmeg available in France is from Indonesia. It is available either whole or ground. Whole nutmeg maintains its flavor longer than if it is ground. The thin layer that separates the stone from the pulp of the fruit is the spice called mace (macis).
  - Cloves (clous de girofle) are in fact the buds of the clove tree, a native of Indonesia. Generally, the cloves available in France are just as hard and dry as everywhere else, but I have found soft flexible ones at at least one store in Paris. It’s common to use whole cloves in stews. The cloves are added to the stew by studding a whole onion with a few. Ground cloves are used in heavily spiced items such as pain d’épice (gingerbread).
  - Cumin (cumin) is possibly the most common spice in the world; cuisines on almost every continent use it. French cooking uses cumin seeds whole and ground, but my impression is that ground form is used the most.
  - Coriander (coriandre) seeds are actually the dried fruits of the coriander plant. The seeds are used both whole and ground in French cooking.
  - Fennel (fenouil) seeds, like coriander, are actually the dried fruits of the fennel plant. Both whole seeds and ground seeds are used in French cooking. In Provence, the stems are sometimes dried and used as a flavoring, too.
  - Prickly ash, aka Szechwan pepper (poivre de Sichuan), is part of the citrus family; it is not really a pepper. The dried fruits of the prickly ash plant is what we use when we add this spice to a dish. For the most part, prickly ash is only available whole, but most recipes require it to be ground. I grind mine in a spice grinder and then strain the results through a fine strainer. The use of Szechwan pepper in French cooking is definitely a modern occurrence.
  - Saffron (safran) is possibly the most expensive spice used in French cooking. This is especially true if you are using a high quality saffron that truly contains only the orange stigmata of the flower. Versions that also contain the yellow stamina, which has no taste of its own, are of a lower quality. Saffron is cultivated from Spain to India. The largest producers are thought to be Spain and Iran.
  - Star anise (badiane) is thought of in France as more a Chinese spice than a French one, but it has gained popularity in French cooking in the last thirty years because of its strong anise flavor. It may be used whole in stews or stocks or ground in other preparations.
  - Juniper (genièvre) is the berry-like cones of the juniper plant. Juniper is used mostly in the Alsace and the Jura. The “berries” are usually used whole for flavoring dishes that are cooked a long time. Most people do not actually eat the juniper “berries” if they happen to be left in the finished dish because they usually stay hard, even when cooked for a long time.
  - Turmeric (curcuma) is a dried, ground rhizome. In French cooking, turmeric is used as much for coloring as it is for flavoring. It is often used as part of a spice mixture, such as curry powder, rather than by itself.
  - Mustard (moutarde), as dried seeds or ground into a powder, is used in French cooking less often than its more common form: prepared mustard. The seeds have no fragrance, but produce their characteristic taste after they are ground or crushed.
  - Cinnamon (cannelle) is the bark of the cinnamon tree. Cinnamon was more important during the Middle Ages, where it was used often in savory dishes. Today, it is usually found in sweet preparations in French cooking, but not exclusively.
  - Cardamon (cardamome) seems to be used mostly in a ground form to flavor charcuterie preparations in French cooking. Because cardamon seeds lose their flavor rapidly when ground, and even whole seeds lose about a third of their essential oil during each year of storage, it is important to always be using fresh seeds when you cook with cardamon.
  - Allspice (poivre de la Jamaïque) is the unripe, dried seeds of the allspice plant. It was first brought to Europe by one of Columbus’s expeditions. Because its appearance is similar to black pepper, it was given a name in French that translates as Jamaican pepper, but the plant is really part of the myrtle family.
- Spice mixtures
  - Four-spice (quatre-épices) is a classic French spice mixture that usually contains pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon. I have seen recipes that substitute another ingredient for one of these or even add a fifth one.
  - Five-spice (cinq-épices) has its origins in Chinese cooking, but I am seeing it used often nowadays by creative chefs with expanding horizons.
  - Curry powder (curry, cari) has been used in French cooking for over a hundred years. There are many curry powder recipes, some hot and some mild. Most mixtures contain at least turmeric, chili, coriander, and cumin. This mixture is said to originate with the British military in colonial India as an attempt to imitate typical Indian spice combinations.
  - Garam masala (garam masala) is a mild North Indian spice mixture that is showing up occasionally in modern French cooking. Like other spice mixtures, the actual combination of spices varies from producer to producer, but most combine cumin and coriander with sweet spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, and Indian bay leaves.
  - Wasabi powder (wasabi en poudre) rarely contains any true wasabi in it. Most versions contain a mixture of dried horseradish, mustard, starch, and coloring. As French chefs incorporate more ingredients from Asia, wasabi is beginning to appear more frequently in recipes. It is also available in France as a pre-made paste.
- Archaic spices are those that were common in the Middle Ages, but are rarely seen nowadays.
  - Grains of paradise (graines de paradis) is sometimes called maniguette (as it was when I was served ice cream flavored with it in 1997), malaguette, or poivre de Guinée. That ice cream is the only modern recipe I have seen that uses it. The flavor it imparts is slightly spicy and a little hot, sort of like pepper. After searching long and hard for it, I have now found a number of sources.
  - Galangale (galanga) is now more common in South East Asian cooking than in French cooking. Galangale is a rhizome similar to ginger with a warm, sweet, and spicy quality. Although I can now purchase it fresh in my local market, in old French recipes, dried galangale was ground into a powder for use. I have not found a modern French recipe that calls for it.

Fresh herbs and aromatics are generally the leaves of plants used to flavor food. Herbs are probably used more often in French cooking than spices. This may be because their availability has improved with modern transportation, refrigeration, and market systems.
- Garlic (ail) is commonly used both as a flavoring and principal ingredient in French cooking. The difference may be the amount used in the recipe. When cooked, its flavor becomes quite mild, but used raw, garlic can really dominate a dish.
- Parsley (persil) in France is mostly the flat-leaf variety (persil plat). Occasionally, the curly variety (persil frisée) will be called for in a recipe. Although mostly used as a garnish, parsley is also a principal component of most bouquets garnis.
- Thyme (thym) is usually called for in a generic form, but I have a few recipes that specify lemon thyme (thym citronné). Sometimes the entire sprig is added to a dish whereas other times just the leaves, either whole or minced, are used. If the whole sprig is added, the woody stem of the sprig is usually fished out of the dish before serving; by this time the leaves will have separated from the stem.
- Rosemary (romarin) shows up often in modern French recipes, but I have seen it used most often in restaurants simply as decoration. I’ve been told that rosemary is easy to grow in the home garden.
- Chervil (cerfeuil) has a flavor reminiscent of anise. The leaves are quite delicate. The herb is usually added to dishes at the end of cooking.
- Bay (laurier, laurier-sauce) is the fragrant leaf of the laurel tree. The leaves are usually added to dishes that are cooked a long time so that the leaf’s essence will be extracted during the cooking process. Before the dish is served, the bay leaf is removed and discarded. Fresh bay leaves are significantly more powerful than dried bay leaves as a flavoring.
- Coriander (coriandre) leaves are also called cilantro in some recipes. I find that half the people I talk to cannot stand the aroma of fresh coriander and everyone else loves it. A lot of people say cilantro has a soapy taste. The leaves are usually added just before serving. I cannot remember seeing a recipe that called for cooked coriander.
- Basil (basilic) may be, after parsley, the most common herb that I see used in modern French recipes. As with thyme, even though there are many varieties of basil, usually recipes only specify generic basil. Basil is an herb that quickly darkens when cut so it is necessary to do so just prior to adding it to a dish.
- Oregano (origan) is an herb that I normally think of as more of an Italian ingredient than a French one. And when I think about where I have found it used in French cooking, it is often on dishes like pizza! But it does show up in other dishes. Sometimes it’s referred to as marjolaine because of its similarity to wild marjoram.
- Marjoram (marjolaine) is probably better called sweet marjoram, to differentiate it from wild marjoram, which sometimes in French is called origan. The difference can be confusing.
- Ginger (gingembre), sometimes referred to as ginger root, has been used in a ground form in French cooking since the Middle Ages. Today, however, recipes tend to call for fresh ginger, which is readily available in French markets.
- Mint (menthe) seems to be used more as decoration, but it is also a significant flavoring in many French dishes, not the least of which is glace à la menthe (mint ice cream). Sometimes a specific variety of mint is specified in a recipe, but often it’s not.
- Verbena (verveine) is easier to find in French kitchen gardens than in French markets. Verbena is actually the genus of about 250 species of both annual and perennial plants. I have prepared a number of dishes that call for this lemony-smelling herb.
- Lemon zest (zeste de citron) is the yellow portion of the skin of the lemon fruit. It is normally minced or finely grated for use as a flavoring. Larger pieces are used for decoration.
- Lime zest (zeste de citron vert) is the green portion of the skin of the lime fruit. It is normally minced or finely grated for use as a flavoring. Larger pieces are used for decoration.
- Tarragon (estragon) is used quite often in modern French cooking. It is the classic flavoring used in sauce béarnaise.
- Savory (sarriette) is a savory (I couldn’t think of another word!) herb used in sausages and terrines.
- Sage (sauge) is a strong aromatic herb used similarly to savory. Traditionally, it is believed to be good for living a long life. Also, it is believed to grow best in a garden where a woman is dominant!
- Lemon grass (citronnelle) is another plant, like verbena, that imparts a refreshing and slightly lemony flavor to dishes. Because of its woody nature, it is usually added to dishes that will cook for awhile, and then it is strained out of the dish before serving.

Dried herbs and aromatics are used less commonly than their fresh counterparts in French cooking.
- Single dried herbs and aromatics
  - Bay (laurier) is the dry form of the fresh bay discussed above. Dried bay leaves are used the same way fresh bay leaves are, but they provide less flavor. Sometimes bay leaves are ground into a fine powder that is then sprinkled over vegetables before or during cooking.
  - Vanilla (vanille) is actually the seeds of the cured and dried fruit of an orchid of the same name. The seeds remain in their protective pod until needed for flavoring. When called for, they are scraped from the pod with the tip of a knife.
  - Powdered vanilla (gousses de vanille en poudre) is not the seeds of the vanilla but the ground-up, dried pods. It is less expensive than the seeds, but it lacks the seeds’strong flavor.
  - Dried orange peel (zeste d’orange séché) is usually made by the individual chef for use in his or her own kitchen by oven-drying finely minced zest. This version has a superior flavor and aroma compared to the sun-dried peel available at Asian and Middle Eastern markets in France. The store-bought variety is usually made from the whole peel, including the bitter pith, and is more suitable for flavoring stews and other dishes that cook for a long time.
  - Ginger (gingembre) that is dried and ground into a powder was used in the Middle Ages. Although I still see it called for occasionally, I think fresh ginger is more common in French cooking today.
- Dried herb and aromatic mixtures
  - Fine herbs (fines herbes) is a mixture of four herbs, traditionally chives, parsley, tarragon, and chervil.
  - Provençal-mixed herbs (herbes de Provence) are available in markets throughout France, especially in the southeast, but I can’t remember ever seeing a recipe that called for their use. Herbes de Provence are usually a mixture of dried herbs: thyme, rosemary, bay, basil, and savory. Lavender is another common addition, but recipes vary from producer to producer.

Preserved aromatics are differentiated in this list from flavoring preparations because the preserved aromatics constitute a single flavoring conserved in an acidic or saline solution.
- Green peppercorns (poivre vert) are the unripe fruit of the pepper plant. They are pickled in a brine, which is rinsed off before the green peppercorns are used.

Preparations are manufactured flavorings available in a jar, can, tube, bag, or bottle.
- Mustard (moutarde) is the paste form of the mustard seed discussed above. Although it is available in a coarsely ground, traditional version, it is the smooth version that is usually used as a flavoring. French prepared mustard is made from ground mustard seeds, vinegar, wine, and salt.
- Soy sauce (sauce soja) has begun to make its way into French cooking, either because of the number of Asian immigrants now resident in the country or because of big-time chefs introducing it into their recipes as a result of their traveling and working in Asia. Even though there are differences between Chinese and Japanese soy sauces and between light and dark varieties, I’ve only seen generic soy sauce called for in recipes in France.
- Tomato paste (concentré de tomate) is available in tubes, like toothpaste, so a small amount may be added to a dish as required.
- Orange blossom water (eau de fleurs d’oranger) was used regularly in the Middle Ages but not as much since them. It shows up in recipes very infrequently, but it definitely is not extinct. It is manufactured by pouring water through orange blossoms and is very aromatic.
- Dehydrated stock (fond déshydraté) was a big surprise to me. The brands available in France for veal, chicken, or fish stock make a pretty good emergency substitute for the real thing. I have seen a two-star chef in southern France adding dehydrated chicken stock to many dishes as a general flavoring. A typical can of this chemical version of stock, in this case veal, contains salt, potato starch, monosodium glutamate, hydrogenated palm oil, glucose syrup, cornstarch, wheat flour, tomatoes, onions, guar gum, natural flavoring, white wine, maltodextrin, veal (2%), sunflower oil, plant aroma, meat extract, garlic, caramel coloring, vitamin E, and soy lecithin. Yum!
- Tabasco sauce (Tabasco) in a French kitchen? Yes. This very American flavoring, sometimes called Louisiana hot sauce, is available throughout France and I’ve seen it in many restaurant kitchens. I think it is used as a safe way of adding cayenne pepper to a dish.
- Worcestershire sauce (sauce worcestershire, sauce anglaise) may be a traditional British flavoring, but it is also manufactured by French companies. As with the sauce by the same name in England and the United States, each company’s recipe for this sauce is different. Because of this difference, unless a brand is specified in the recipe, your results may vary from the those of the recipe’s author.
- Heinz ketchup (ketchup) was another surprise for me when I first entered restaurant kitchens in France, but the biggest surprise was when Louis Outhier (a retired Michelin three-star chef) called for it in his recipe for tartare de bœuf. Even if you use Heinz-brand ketchup, the brand he specified, in your cooking, the results may be different from his because Heinz uses a different recipe for the ketchup in difference countries. The American and French versions are slightly spicy whereas the British and Australian versions are quite sweet. [There are many French brands of ketchup now, and some are marketed as being especially spicy to please the French palate.]

Acids are used to provide a degree of tartness to the flavor of a dish. There are two types of acids used in French cooking: vinegars and fruit juices.
- Vinegars have probably been around as long as people have been making wine. Although the list below includes vinegars made from fruits other than grapes, and the list is not exhaustive, wine vinegar is still probably used the most in French cooking.
  - Red-wine vinegar (vinaigre de vin rouge)
  - White-wine vinegar (vinaigre de vin blanc)
  - Apple-cider vinegar (vinaigre de cidre) is vinegar made from apple cider, which is slightly fermented apple juice.
  - Tarragon vinegar (vinaigre à l’estragon) is white-wine vinegar flavored with tarragon.
  - Sherry vinegar (vinaigre de xérès) is vinegar made from the same grapes as the fortified wine of the same name.
  - Balsamic vinegar (vinaigre balsamique), if genuine, is a product from Modena, Italy. It is a slightly sweet wine vinegar that is available in many ages and qualities. In restaurants, usually the cheapest brand available is used.
  - Raspberry vinegar (vinaigre à la framboise) is a raspberry-flavored red-wine vinegar.
  - Cherry vinegar (vinaigre à la cerise) is another flavored red-wine vinegar.
- Juices such as lemon juice have been used in French cooking as a flavoring for many centuries, but the use of the other citrus juices is more recent.
  - Fresh lemon juice (jus de citron)
  - Fresh lime juice (jus de citron vert)
  - Fresh orange juice (jus d’orange)
  - Fresh grapefruit juice (jus de pamplemousse)
  - Verjuice (verjus) is the juice of unripened grapes. Its production dates back to the origins of French cooking, where is was more common and less costly than vinegar.

Oils are usually thought of as cooking fats rather than as flavorings but that isn’t always the case.
- Nut oils generally have a smoke point that is too low and a price that is too high to make them practical as cooking oils, but they are excellent as flavorings. I especially like to use them in vinaigrettes.
  - Walnut oil (huile de noix)
  - Hazelnut oil (huile de noisettes)
  - Almond oil (huile d’amandes)
- Essential oils are used to flavor deserts; only a few drops are required of these highly concentrated flavorings.
  - Bergamot oil (huile de bergamote)
  - Bitter almond oil (huile d’amandes amères)

Alcohols form a large group of flavorings used in French cooking. Some are used only in small quantities, some in large. Some are also used to fortify the cook!
- Wines, both natural and fortified, form a large group of flavorings. Besides wines available in generic form, each region has local wines that can impart unique characteristics to regional dishes.
  - Red wine (vin rouge)
  - White wine (vin blanc)
  - Vin jaune is a late-harvest wine from the Jura.
  - Madeira wine (madère) is a fortified wine made on the Madeira Islands of Portugal.
  - Sherry (xérès) is a fortified wine originally made in Jerez, Spain, but now produced in many parts of the world. Sherry may be dry or sweet.
  - Vermouth (Noilly Prat) is a fortified wine flavored with aromatic herbs. Noilly Prat is the major brand of vermouth produced in France.
  - Port wine (porto) is a fortified wine originally from the Douro Valley in Portugal, but is now produced in many countries. The port wine used in French restaurant kitchens is often an inexpensive imitation of true thing.
- Beers tend to be used only in regional cooking with traditional grain-based beers common to cooking in the Alsace and apple juice-based beers (ciders) common to cooking in Normandy.
  - Beer (bière)
  - Cider (cidre)
- Spirits and liqueurs are used to impart stronger flavors to dishes than is possible with wines or beers. Some, like crème de cassis, tend to be used only in certain regions whereas others are used throughout France.
  - Grape brandy (cognac, armagnac)
  - Apple brandy (calvados)
  - Pear brandy (poire William)
  - Cherry brandy (kirsch)
  - Other types of brandy (eau de vie)
  - Rum (rhum)
  - Pastis is an anise-flavored liqueur developed in 1915 after absinthe was outlawed in France.
  - Orange liqueur (Grand-Marnier, Cointreau)
  - Cassis liqueur (crème de cassis)
- Extracts are different from the other alcohol flavorings. With extracts, alcohol is used to draw out the flavor from the source material. When used as a flavoring, the root flavor dominates and the alcohol recedes.
  - Vanilla extract (extrait de vanille)
  - Coffee extract (extrait de café)

Sweeteners have been used in cooking from ancient times. Honey was the original sweetener, with sugar coming much later.
- Granulated sugar (sucre en poudre, sucre cristallisé) as we know it today is a modern flavoring that has mostly existed in this form for only a hundred years or so. When sugar was first brought from the New World, it was usually in the form of cones, called loaves, and the cook would chip a piece off with “sugar scissors.” Prior to that time, some sugar was available from the Middle East, but it was not very common. Besides standard granulated sugar, it is also available in France as finely granulated sugar (sucre semoule), powdered or confectioner’s sugar (sucre glace), brown sugar (sucre brun), raw Demerara sugar (sucre roux), and rock sugar (sucre candi).
- Honey (miel) is possibly the oldest sweetener. It has been replaced by sugar for the most part, but it still appears in some recipes. It is not uncommon for the source vegetation of the honey, such as lavender, to be specified in a recipe.
- Maple syrup (sirop d’érable) shows up occasionally in French recipes, even those not from the former French colony of Quebec.