When working with old French recipes, I always try to keep in mind that the food products and cooking equipment available to the ancient cook were probably much different than today. A century ago, chickens were marketed at smaller sizes than is common today and eggs were not sized and sold in convenient Styrofoam packages. The cook stove may have been fueled by wood, coal gas, coke, or charcoal instead of today’s “instant-on” fuels. The availability of different foods, especially vegetables, also can affect my interpretation of old recipes.
In the third decade of the nineteenth century, a number of books intended for the middle-class cook were published in France. (I assume that the proprietor of the house, or his wife, would purchase one of these books to use in guiding the work of the household cook who probably could not afford one, or maybe even read it.) Vegetable dishes designed to “stand-alone” were part of the deuxième (second) service—these were still the days of service à la française—whereas vegetable-based soups were served as part of the premier (first) service. Within the second service, the vegetable dishes were usually classified as entremets—no longer considered small dishes to serve between courses but not yet only considered strictly as sweet dishes. “Les entremets sont plus légers que les entrées et se composent de poissons, pâtisseries, légumes, œufs, crèmes et autres préparations sucrées d’entremets.” (Entremets are lighter than the entrées and are composed of fish, meat pies, vegetables, eggs, creams and other sweetened preparations.) [Audot, 91] Vegetables also appear in some of the meat dishes that were part of both services, but not to the extent that they were presented as solo acts.
To investigate these dishes, I decided to use four cookbooks which all purported to be aimed at a bourgeoise audience and were published in some form during the 1820s: Menon’s La Cuisinière bourgeoise, Audot’s La Cuisinière de la Campagne et de la Ville, Cardelli’s Manuel du cuisinier et de la cuisinière, and the anonymous French Domestic Cookery. The first three books were published in Paris and were probably directed primarily at the Parisian audience. The last book was published in England but presented itself as being representative of the “French culinary system,” which was centered in Paris. [French, ii] There were probably other significant books available during the same decade, but the ones I was able to review all seemed to be directed towards culinary professionals, not the middle class.
With these four books in hand, I proceeded to review each one to determine which vegetables were discussed and to what degree. Each book had a distinct vegetable section, and this was reviewed first. For each vegetable it was noted whether there was an introduction about the vegetable and whether the introduction contained any methods for preparing it. Next a count was made of any recipes for each vegetable listed in the section and whether a recipe for a particular vegetable also contained another significant ingredient; significance was determined by whether the ingredient was listed in the title of the recipe. Next the soup and puree sections were reviewed for vegetable recipes. Lastly, all the titles of the remaining recipes in each book were reviewed for references to a vegetable.
A total of 55 distinct vegetables were found in the four books, but not all books referenced every one of the vegetables. The results of the review are shown in the following table. Each outcome is expressed as four numbers or symbols separated by forward slashes. The first number indicates whether there was an introduction, the second is the number of methods detailed in the introduction, and the third is the number of recipes found that used the vegetable. The last outcome, if present, can be either MN, meaning that the vegetable was mentioned in one or more recipes as an ingredient but not the prime ingredient, or CR, meaning that the vegetable was also cross-referenced to another one, indicating that it could be cooked the same as the cross-referenced ingredient.
| Table I: Frequency and Type of Vegetable Indications | ||||
| Vegetable | Menon | Audot | Cardelli | English Physician |
| ail (garlic) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / 1 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 1 |
| artichauts (artichokes) | – / – / 3 | 1 / 1 / 12 | 1 / 1 / 7 | 1 / 2 / 9 |
| asperges (asparagus) | 1 / 5 / 2 | – / – / 3 | 1 / 1 / 3 | 1 / – / 5 |
| aubergines (eggplant) | – / – / – | – / – / 2 | 1 / 1 / 1 | – / – / – |
| betteraves (beets, beet-root) | 1 / 1 / – | 1 / 1 / – | – / – / – | 1 / 1 / – |
| câpres (capers) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / 2 | – / – / 2 | – / – / – / MN |
| cardes-poirées (chard stalks) | 1 / 1 / 1 | – / – / – | – / – / – / CR | – / – / – |
| cardons (cardoon) | 1 / 5 / – | – / – / 7 | 1 / 1 / 3 | – / – / – |
| carottes (carrots) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / 8 | – / – / 4 | 1 / 2 / 4 |
| céleri[-rave] (celeriac) | 1 / 1 / – | 1 / – / 4 / CR | – / – / 3 | 1 / 1 |
| champignons [de Paris] (common mushrooms) | 1 / 4 / – | 1 / – / 7 | 1 / – / 8 | 1 / 2 / 7 |
| chicorée (endive) | 1 / 2 / – | – / – / 4 / CR | – / – / 2 / CR | 1 / – / 1 |
| chou [rouge] (red cabbage) | – / – / – | – / – / 4 | – / – / 1 | – / – / – |
| chou [vert] (green cabbage) | 1 / 2 / 3 | 1 / 1 / 10 | – / – / 5 | 1 / 1 / 16 |
| choux de Bruxelles (Brussels sprouts) | – / – / – | – / – / 1 | – / – / 1 | – / – / – |
| choux-fleurs (cauliflower) | 1 / 2 / 2 | 1 / – / 12 | – / – / 3 | 1 / 1 / 6 |
| ciboules (scallions) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – | – / – / – / MN |
| citrouille (hard-skinned squash) | – / – / 1 | – / – / 1 | – / – / – | 1 / 2 / 1 |
| concombres (cucumbers) | 1 / 3 / 4 | 1 / 1 / 8 | – / – / 5 | – / – / 3 |
| cornichons (gherkins) | 1 / – / 3 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 4 | 1 / 1 / 2 |
| épinards (spinach) | 1 / 2 / 2 | 1 / 1 / – | 1 / 1 / 4 | 1 / 1 / 2 |
| échalotes (shallots) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – / MN |
| fenouil (fennel) | – / – / – | 1 / – / – | – / – / – | – / – / – |
| fèves (fava beans) | 1 / 1 / – | 1 / – / 5 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 4 |
| giraumons (hard-skinned squash) | – / – / – | – / – / 1 | – / – / – / CR | – / – / – |
| haricots blancs nouveaux (fresh white kidney beans) | – / – / – | 1 / – / 4 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 5 |
| haricots rouges (dried red kidney beans) | – / – / – | – / – / 2 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 2 |
| haricots verts (green beans) | 1 / 6 / 1 | 1 / – / 5 | 1 / 1 / 7 | – / – / 7 |
| laitues (lettuce) | 1 / 2 / – | – / – / 6 / CR | – / – / 5 / CR | 1 / 1 / 3 |
| lentilles (lentils) | 1 / – / 6 / CR | 1 / – / – / CR | – / – / 2 | 1 / – / 6 |
| marrons (chestnuts) | – / – / – | – / – / 4 | – / – / 4 | – / – / 1 |
| morilles (morel mushrooms) | 1 / 4 / – | 1 / 1 / – | – / – / – / CR | 1 / 2 / – |
| mousserons (fairy ring mushrooms) | 1 / 4 / – | 1 / 1 / – | – / – / – / CR | – / – / – |
| navets (turnips) | – / – / 1 | – / – / 11 | – / – / 1 | 1 / 3 / 1 |
| oignons (onions) | 1 / 2 / 6 | – / – / 14 | – / – / 3 | 1 / 1 / 7 |
| oseille (sorrel) | – / – / – | – / – / 5 | – / – / 4 | – / – / 1 |
| panais (parsnips) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / – | – / – / – | – / – / – |
| patates (sweet potatoes) | – / – / – | 1 / 3 / – | 1 / 2 / – | – / – / – |
| petits pois (baby peas) | – / – / 3 | – / – / 5 | – / – / 3 | 1 / – / – / 5 |
| poirée (chard, beet greens) | – / – / – | – / – / – / CR | – / – / – | – / – / 1 |
| poireaux (leeks) | – / – / – / MN | – / – / 2 | – / – / – | – / – / – / MN |
| pois goulus (edible-pod peas) | – / – / – | – / – / – | – / – / – | 1 / – / – |
| pois secs (dried [split] peas) | 1 / 3 / – | 1 / – / 2 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 2 |
| pois verts (green peas) | 1 / – / 3 | 1 / – / 6 | – / – / 1 | – / – / 3 |
| pommes de terre (potatoes) | – / – / – | – / – / 27 | 1 / – / 8 | 1 / 1 / 41 |
| potiron (pumpkin) | – / – / – | – / – / 4 | – / – / 1 / CR | – / – / – |
| radis (radishes) | 1 / – / – | 1 / – / – | – / – / – | – / – / – |
| raifort (horseradish) | – / – / – | – / – / 2 | – / – / 1 | – / – / – |
| romaines (romaine, cos lettuce) | 1 / 2 / – | 1 / 1 / – / CR | – / – / – / CR | 1 / 1 / – |
| salsifis (salsify, white salsify) | 1 / 1 / – / CR | 1 / – / 8 | 1 / 3 / – | – / – / 3 |
| scorsonères (black salsify) | 1 / 1 / – / CR | 1 / – / 8 | – / – / – | – / – / – |
| tomates (tomatoes) | – / – / – | – / – / 3 | – / – / 3 | – / – / 1 |
| topinambours (Jerusalem artichokes) | 1 / 1 / – | 1 / 2 / – / CR | – / – / – / CR | 1 / 1 / – |
| truffes (truffles) | 1 / 3 / 1 | 1 / – / 5 | 1 / 1 / 7 | 1 / 1 / 5 |
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Notes to Table:
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None of the books provided any physical descriptions of the vegetables so I do not know how they differed from vegetables found today with the same name. Today, there is a large variety of specific vegetables, say carrots or onions, available to different cooks in different locations and at different times of the year. I suspect that there was less variety available to the Parisian shopper, but that still doesn’t tell us what their carrots or onions were specifically like. Although in the case of onions, it is known that the pink-skinned onions from Roscoff were being transported from Brittany to England as early as 1828, [Blume ] and it can be assumed that some also made their way to Paris.
Only a few of the vegetables found were unfamiliar to me. Scorsonères (black salsify) was mentioned by Menon and Audot; both write that the vegetable is the same as salsifis (white salsify). This is in agreement with the 6th edition of Dictionnaire de l’Académie française which adds, “On la nomme autrement Salsifis noir ou Salsifis d’Espagne.” (It is also called black salsify or Spanish salsify.) [Dictionnaire (6th), 2:715] Today, most marketable salsify has a black skin.
Giraumons and citrouilles both appear to be hard-skinned squashes that can be prepared similar to potiron (pumpkin). Giraumon and citrouille are both listed by Audot as a synonym for pumpkin. [Audot, 326] Cardelli cross-references both giraumon and pumpkin to cucumbers, i.e., pumpkins can be cooked the same as cucumbers, plus he includes one recipe specifically for pumpkin. [Cardelli, 46, 259, 268] Menon provides a single citrouille recipe, but doesn’t mention the other squashes. [Menon, 9] The English physician translates citrouille as pumpkin and provides both introductory comments and a recipe. [French, 258]
The poirée and carde-poirée are more of a mystery. The poirée is cross-referenced to chicorée by Audot [Audot, 315] and treated simultaneously with cerfeuil (chervil) and orseille (sorrel) in a recipe about preservation by the English physician. [French, 258-60] The physician translates poirée as beet, but I assume from his description that he is referring to the greens and not the root. [French, 259] Menon places it in a page-long discussion of herbs including cerfeuil (chervil) and oseille (sorrel). [Menon, 177] The 5th edition of the Dictionnaire de l’Académie française says that it is another name for bette blanche (white chard), but the 6th edition says that it simply is another name for bette (chard). [Dictionnaire (5th), 317; Dictionnaire (6th), 2:449] Cardelli cross-references carde-poirée to cardons (cardoons). [Cardelli, 249] Menon provides a short, but not helpful, introduction plus a single recipe. [Menon, 180] Once again, the Dictionnaire de l’Académie française provides a hint to the meaning, “La côte qui est au milieu des feuilles de certaines plantes, comme la poirée et l'artichaut, et qui est bonne à manger.” (The stalk which is in the center of the leaves of certain plants, such as chard and artichoke, and which is good to eat.) [Dictionnaire (6th), 1:261]
The last mystery vegetable, pois goulus (lit. greedy peas), appears in the cookbook by the English physician. He writes, “When these peas are very young and tender, they are dressed like petit pois, but with their shells.” [French, 222] I think these would nowadays be referred to as pois gourmande (edible-pod peas, sugar peas) but not as toute mange (snow peas).
It was not surprising to not see potatoes or tomatoes mentioned by Menon, because his book was first published in 1746, a few decades before potatoes and tomatoes were accepted as suitable for human consumption in France. However, potatoes were the most popular vegetable mentioned by Audot with 27 recipes and by the physician with 41 recipes. Cardelli only lists eight recipes, but there is no other vegetable with more recipes in his work. The tomato doesn’t fare as well; there are only three tomato recipes each in Audot and Cardelli and only one recipe listed by the English physician.
Aubergines (eggplant) seem to just be entering the scene with only two recipes by Audot and an introduction and single recipe by Cardelli. Betteraves (beets, beet-roots) received even less mention with just introductory remarks in all the books except the one by Cardelli. Menon only mentioned carrots as an ingredient in other recipes, but never provides an introduction or recipe for it.
Céleri (celeriac) is only eaten as a root. Céleri en branches (stalk celery) is nowhere to be found in any of the books. Ciboules (scallions) are mentioned as an ingredient in other recipes by all but Cardelli, but ciboulette (chives) are never mentioned by any of the authors. All four authors mention échalotes (shallots) but only as an ingredient in other recipes. Only Audot mentions fenouil (fennel) and that is only with a brief introduction. The only wild mushrooms mentioned are morilles (morel mushrooms) and mousserons (fairy-ring mushrooms). Only Menon mentions panais (parsnips) but just as an ingredient in another recipe. The English physician, and no one else, mentions the chou de Milan (Savoy cabbage) form of chou vert (green cabbage). Although there are a number of laitue (lettuce) recipes in each of the books, the varieties available just seem to be laitue pommées (head lettuce) and romaine (romaine lettuce).
A lack of much attention to a vegetable may indicate a lack of availability or a lack of popularity. Also, four vegetables common to modern, late 20th century, French cooking are noticeably missing from all four books: brocoli (broccoli), poivrons (sweet peppers), courgettes (zucchini), and mais (corn).
The varieties of each vegetable available in the 1820s were probably different from what is available today with the same name. The actual vegetable may not be that much different, but with changes in seed and propagation technology, they are probably certain to be grown from different seeds.
If we ignore obviously modern cooking methods, such as microwave or sous vide, the vegetable preparation methods delineated in these books seem to correspond to ones found in modern cookbooks. Moist or wet cooking methods are more common than dry cooking or roasting, and high-water content vegetables are often sweat in fat before being fully cooked with another method, a technique in common use today.
With the somewhat minor exceptions noted above, it appears that the vegetables available to middle-class Paris in the 1820s were not too dissimilar to those available today. Maybe there was less variety of individual vegetables, but most of the vegetables we would expect to find in a modern market were there to be found as well.
Bibliography & Notes
- A., L.-E. (Louis-Eustache Audot), La Cuisinière de la Campagne et de la Ville, or Nouvelle Cuisine économique. Paris: Audot, Libraire-Éditeur, 32nd ed., 1852. (Vicaire, 55) La Cuisinière de la Campagne was first published in 1818 and continued in print until 1887, when the 65th edition was published. There were five editions published during the 1820s, all the same as the first. According to Vicaire, through the 39th edition published in 1859, all the editions were identical.
- Blume, Maryn, Don’t Cry for Me, Onion Johnnie, in the International Herald Tribune, 6 Sept. 2007.
- Cardelli, P. (H. Duval), Manuel du cuisinier et de la cuisinière, a l’usage de la ville et de la campagne; contenant toutes les recettes les plus simples pour faire bonne chère avec économie ainsi que les meilleurs procédés pour la Pâtisserie et l’office; précédé d’un traité sur la dissection des viandes; suivi de la manière de conserver les substances alimentaires et d’un Traité sur les vins; Par P. Cardelli, ancien chef d’office. Paris: Roret, Libraire, 5th ed., 1827. (Vicaire, 142) Manuel du cuisinier was first published in 1822. The 5th edition, according to Vicaire, is equivalent to the first. It is easy to picture this small (16mo), 350-page volume fitting into the pocket of a cook’s apron for quick reference.
- Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française. Paris: Académie Française, 5th ed., 1798.
- Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française. Paris: Académie Française, 6th ed., 1832-5.
- French Domestic Cookery, Combining Economy with Elegance, and Adapted to the Use of Families of Moderate Fortune, by an English Physician, Many Years Resident on the Continent. London: Thomas Boys, 1825. French Domestic Cookery was published only once, and was intended to introduce the English middle class to French middle-class cooking. The one known review of the book is short and non-complimentary: “The ‘French Domestic Cookery,’ has all the faults which we have pointed out in Beauvilliers’, except an absurd preface: but, to make up for this, it borrows the title of a popular work on cookery, which it will never supersede. We may ask, why so many dishes à l’Anglaise are introduced into a French cookery book?” (The Monthly Review. London: Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance & Co., 1827, 46-7.)
- (Menon), La Cuisinière bourgeoise, suivie de l’office, à l’usage de tous ceux qui se mêlent de dépenses des maisons. Paris: Guillaume, 1822. (Vicaire, 236) La Cuisinière bourgeoise was first published in 1746. This nouvelle edition is a bit abbreviated from earlier editions and is assumed to be simplified.
- Vicaire, Georges, Bibliographie Gastronomique. Paris: Chez P. Rouquette et Fils, Éditeurs, 1890.
©2008, 2014 Peter Hertzmann. All rights reserved.